Complete List of Palawan's Aquatic Species | |
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Common Mushroom Coral
Status: Near Threatened
The Common Mushroom Coral (Fungia fungites) is found on back reef, flat reef, reef slopes and lagoons. This is a solitary, free-living coral found between depths of 1-20 m. The depth range is from <1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size of the species is 31 cm diameter. It is a good asexual reproducer and often occurs in clusters as a result. This species is one of the first colonisers to settle in blasted areas and thrives in disturbed environments. It is always attached as a juvenile and free living as an adult, and as a result it is mobile. It is a good competitor and can live on a variety of substrata.
This species is susceptible to bleaching and in one study approximately 50% of individuals were bleached. Mortality rates were not known.
This species may be eaten by crown of thorns starfish, although are not targeted. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (Acanthaster planci) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. Other threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,300 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 9,438. In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.
Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
The Common Mushroom Coral (Fungia fungites) is found on back reef, flat reef, reef slopes and lagoons. This is a solitary, free-living coral found between depths of 1-20 m. The depth range is from <1-25 m (Hoeksema 1990). The maximum size of the species is 31 cm diameter. It is a good asexual reproducer and often occurs in clusters as a result. This species is one of the first colonisers to settle in blasted areas and thrives in disturbed environments. It is always attached as a juvenile and free living as an adult, and as a result it is mobile. It is a good competitor and can live on a variety of substrata.
This species is susceptible to bleaching and in one study approximately 50% of individuals were bleached. Mortality rates were not known.
This species may be eaten by crown of thorns starfish, although are not targeted. Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) (Acanthaster planci) are found throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and the Red Sea. Other threats include coral removal and harvesting for display in aquariums and for the curio-trade. This species is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 9,300 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 9,438. In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification.
Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and a major cause of reef deterioration Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
Smooth Cauliflower Coral
Status: Near Threatened
The Smooth Cauliflower Coral (Stylophora pistillata) can be found throughout the Indo-West Pacific, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
It is primarily found in shallow water reef environments exposed to strong wave action. Sparse colonies of the Smooth Cauliflower Coral are found from 3-11 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found from 0-4 m of Eilat. The maximum size is approximately 30 cm across. It can be found to 15 m.
The Smooth Cauliflower Coral is threatened because it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,250 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10,526. Additionally, the Smooth Cauliflower Coral's susceptibility to bleaching has been related to decreased capacity of it's zooxanthellae species to cope with photo damage .
Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
The Smooth Cauliflower Coral (Stylophora pistillata) can be found throughout the Indo-West Pacific, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the southwest and northwest Indian Ocean, the Arabian/Iranian Gulf, the central Indian Ocean, tropical Australia, southern Japan and the South China Sea, the oceanic West Pacific, and the Central Pacific.
It is primarily found in shallow water reef environments exposed to strong wave action. Sparse colonies of the Smooth Cauliflower Coral are found from 3-11 m in the South China Sea and Gulf of Siam. This species is considered to be a main reef-framework builder and is found from 0-4 m of Eilat. The maximum size is approximately 30 cm across. It can be found to 15 m.
The Smooth Cauliflower Coral is threatened because it is targeted for the aquarium trade. Indonesia is the largest exporter with an annual quota of 2,250 live pieces in 2005. The total number of corals (live and raw) exported for this species in 2005 was 10,526. Additionally, the Smooth Cauliflower Coral's susceptibility to bleaching has been related to decreased capacity of it's zooxanthellae species to cope with photo damage .
Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., MPAs, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting. Recommended conservation measures include population surveys to monitor the effects of collecting for the aquarium trade, especially in Indonesia.
Yellowfin Tuna
Status: Near Threatened
The Yellowfin Tuna (Thunnus albacares) is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. Tagging data show that trans-Atlantic migrations occur, and the Yellowfin Tuna from the entire Atlantic are considered to be part of a single stock. In the eastern Pacific, this species ranges from southern California and the southwest and central eastern parts of the Gulf of California to Peru, including all of the oceanic islands. It may occur off Oregon and Washington during El Niño years.
This is an open-water pelagic and oceanic species occurring above and below the thermocline to depths of at least 400 m. The primary Atlantic spawning grounds are in the Gulf of Guinea, and to a lesser extent in the Gulf of Mexico. Spawning occurs throughout the year in the core areas of distribution at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher, but peaks are observed in the northern and southern summer months respectively. Spawning occurs almost entirely at night between 2200 and 0600 hrs.
This species is primarily caught by the purse-seine fishery, but is also taken by longlines and pole-and-line fishing.
Conservation measures imposed in 2004 for the Eastern Pacific under resolution C-04-09 (IATTC 2008) are predicted to maintain the stock at about the Average Maximum Sustainable Yield level, slightly higher than would otherwise be the case. Three month closures have been proposed by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and Mexico, which has one of the largest fisheries for this species.
The Yellowfin Tuna (Thunnus albacares) is found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. Tagging data show that trans-Atlantic migrations occur, and the Yellowfin Tuna from the entire Atlantic are considered to be part of a single stock. In the eastern Pacific, this species ranges from southern California and the southwest and central eastern parts of the Gulf of California to Peru, including all of the oceanic islands. It may occur off Oregon and Washington during El Niño years.
This is an open-water pelagic and oceanic species occurring above and below the thermocline to depths of at least 400 m. The primary Atlantic spawning grounds are in the Gulf of Guinea, and to a lesser extent in the Gulf of Mexico. Spawning occurs throughout the year in the core areas of distribution at sea surface temperatures of 24°C or higher, but peaks are observed in the northern and southern summer months respectively. Spawning occurs almost entirely at night between 2200 and 0600 hrs.
This species is primarily caught by the purse-seine fishery, but is also taken by longlines and pole-and-line fishing.
Conservation measures imposed in 2004 for the Eastern Pacific under resolution C-04-09 (IATTC 2008) are predicted to maintain the stock at about the Average Maximum Sustainable Yield level, slightly higher than would otherwise be the case. Three month closures have been proposed by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and Mexico, which has one of the largest fisheries for this species.
Green Chromide
Status: Least Concern
The Green Chromide (Etroplus suratensis) is distributed in the coastal regions of peninsular India and Sri Lanka. In India, the wild populations have been recorded from the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. There are also populations in Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal. These are likely introduced populations. The species has now been introduced to dam reservoirs in the mountains and lakes and culture ponds. They come from or are natives of India and Sri Lanka, It is a common but declining species.
The Green Chromide is a euryhaline species that inhabits mainly brackish water and river mouths. It is an oval-shaped cichlid with a short snout, small mouth not extending past the front margin of the eye with a greyish-green colouration on the flanks, with 6 to 8 dark bars and a dark spot at base of the pectoral fin. Most scales on the sides are with a pearly spot. Macrophytic fragments form the most important component of its diet along with molluscs, although detritus, diatoms, and animal matter are also ingested. Adults engage in altruistic multiple parental care where several adults care for a single brood that presumably were spawned by only two of the adults.
Despite the species being in high demand, the wild populations of the Green Chromide have not been given sufficient conservation attention. There have been attempts in the past to create 'no fishing zones' within some of the larger estuaries and the species did seek refuge in these protected zones. Such No-fishing zones should be extrapolated to other regions as well, to guarantee effective genetic preservation. This is declared as the state fish by the government of Kerala. Captive breeding has been undertaken by Padmakumar et al. (2004). An aquatic sanctuary was made in Vembanad Lake for this species. The Vembanad lake protection forums has started 'Matsyatavalam' (home of fishes) for the sustainable fisheries of this species. Cage culture of this species is being practiced in Vembanad Lake and Vypin Islands.
Wild populations of the Green Chromide are subject to various pressures brought on by people like habitat deterioration brought on by the disposal of solid and liquid wastes and the discharge of human fecal matter from adjacent habitations and an increasing number of tourism resorts and houseboats, which are going beyond the carrying capacity of the backwaters/estuaries. A major threat is from exotic species like the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and the Three Spot Gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus). There have also been reports in the past, of the Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) disease outbreak, which has spread throughout South and South-east Asia since 1980.
The Green Chromide (Etroplus suratensis) is distributed in the coastal regions of peninsular India and Sri Lanka. In India, the wild populations have been recorded from the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. There are also populations in Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal. These are likely introduced populations. The species has now been introduced to dam reservoirs in the mountains and lakes and culture ponds. They come from or are natives of India and Sri Lanka, It is a common but declining species.
The Green Chromide is a euryhaline species that inhabits mainly brackish water and river mouths. It is an oval-shaped cichlid with a short snout, small mouth not extending past the front margin of the eye with a greyish-green colouration on the flanks, with 6 to 8 dark bars and a dark spot at base of the pectoral fin. Most scales on the sides are with a pearly spot. Macrophytic fragments form the most important component of its diet along with molluscs, although detritus, diatoms, and animal matter are also ingested. Adults engage in altruistic multiple parental care where several adults care for a single brood that presumably were spawned by only two of the adults.
Despite the species being in high demand, the wild populations of the Green Chromide have not been given sufficient conservation attention. There have been attempts in the past to create 'no fishing zones' within some of the larger estuaries and the species did seek refuge in these protected zones. Such No-fishing zones should be extrapolated to other regions as well, to guarantee effective genetic preservation. This is declared as the state fish by the government of Kerala. Captive breeding has been undertaken by Padmakumar et al. (2004). An aquatic sanctuary was made in Vembanad Lake for this species. The Vembanad lake protection forums has started 'Matsyatavalam' (home of fishes) for the sustainable fisheries of this species. Cage culture of this species is being practiced in Vembanad Lake and Vypin Islands.
Wild populations of the Green Chromide are subject to various pressures brought on by people like habitat deterioration brought on by the disposal of solid and liquid wastes and the discharge of human fecal matter from adjacent habitations and an increasing number of tourism resorts and houseboats, which are going beyond the carrying capacity of the backwaters/estuaries. A major threat is from exotic species like the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and the Three Spot Gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus). There have also been reports in the past, of the Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) disease outbreak, which has spread throughout South and South-east Asia since 1980.
Written by Anne Wong
Photos compiled by Tony Yuan
Photos compiled by Tony Yuan